Animal Tracking Resources » Animal Tracking in North America

Wildlife Tracking Resources

• Organizations, Schools & Workshops
• Scientific Pubs
• Tracking Books

(LAST UPDATED APRIL 2, 06)

Additional Periodicals

• Aiken, R. (1930) “Tracks: A unique method of collecting them.” Nature Magazine 15(3):170.
• Brown, L. (1968) “The right way to walk four legged” Natural History 77:32-39, 84-85
• Chubb, S. (1929) “How animals run.” Natural History 29:543-551.
• Clark, H.W. (1929) “Records of night: The ramblers are revealed.” Nature Magazine 14(4):222.
• Elbroch, M. (1999) “Trail Markers.” Northern Woodlands Magazine (previously Vermont Woodlands Magazine.) Summer:50-51
• Lowery, J. “Tracking the Coyote.” Wilderness Way Magazine 4(1):23-25.
• Morse, S. (1998-present) “Tracking Tips” Northern Woodlands Magazine (previously Vermont Woodlands Magazine.) All issues from Summer 1998 to present:1-2 pp each.
• Nelson, E.W. (1916 ) “The Larger North American Mammals” National Geographic Magazine 30(5):
• Palmer, P. (1945) “He who runs may be read” Nature Magazine 38(10) :529-536.
• Smith, A. (1997) “The Art of Making Hay.” National Wildlife 35(3):30-35.
• Worsham, C. “Tracking in Leaves.” Wilderness Way Magazine 1(2):12–15
• Worsham, C. “The Walking gait of the Gray Fox.” Wilderness Way Magazine 2(2):4–7.

Analysis of Tracking Data

• Beauvais, G.P., Buskirk, S.W. (1999) “An improved estimate of trail detectability for snow-trail surveys.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 27(1):32-38.
• Beavers, S. and Ramsey, F. (1998) “Detectability Analysis in Transect Surveys.” Journal of Wildlife Management 62(3):948-957.
• Becker, E., Spindler, M., and T. Osborne. (1998) “A Population Estimator Based On Network Sampling of Tracks in the Snow” Journal of Wildlife Management 62(3):968-977.
• Beier, P. and Cunningham, S. (1996) “Power of track surveys to detect changes in cougar populations.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 24(3):540-546
• Burnham, K. and Anderson, D. (1984) “The Need for Distance Data in Transect Counts.” Journal of Wildlife Management 48(4):1248-1254.
• Eberhardt, L. (1978) “Transect Methods for Population Studies.” Journal of Wildlife Management 42(1):1-31.
• Kendall, K., Metzgar, L., Patterson, D. and Steele, B. (1992) “Power of sign surveys to monitor population trends.” Ecological Applications 2(4):422-430
• Mackenzie, D. I. (2005) “Was it there? Dealing with imperfect detection for species presence/absence data.” Australian & New Zealand Journal of Statistics 47:65-74.
• MacKenzie, D. I. (2005) “What are the issues with presence-absence data for wildlife managers? ” Journal of Wildlife Management 69:849-860.
• Sargeant, G. Johnson, D., and Berg, W. (2003) “Sampling designs for carnivore scent-station surveys.” Journal of Wildlife Management 67(2):289-298.
• Silveira, L., Jacomo, A., and Diniz-Filho, J. (2003) “Camera trap, line transect census and track surveys: a comparative evaluation.” Biological Conservation 114(3):351-355.
• Stanley, T., and J. A. Royle. (2005) “Estimating site occupancy and abundance using indirect detection indices.” Journal of Wildlife Management 69(3):874-883.
• Van Dyke, F., Brocke, R. (1987) “Use of Road Track Counts as Indices of Mountain Lion Presence.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 15:256-259
• Van Dyke, F., Brocke, R. and Shaw, H. (1986) “Use of Road Track Counts as Indices of Mountain Lion Presence.” Journal of Wildlife Management 50(1):102-109.

Feeding Signs, Depredation analysis

• Allen, D.L. (1938) “Notes on the killing technique of the New York weasel.” Journal of Mammalogy 19:225-229.
• Cahalane, V.H. (1942) “Caching and recovery of food by the western fox squirrel.” Journal of Wildlife Management 6:338-352.
• Conger, S.L. and G.A. Biusti. (1992) “Observation of black bear predation on Columbian black-tailed deer.” California Fish & Game 78:131-132.
• Elgmork, K. (1982) “Caching behavior of brown bears.” Journal of Mammalogy 63 :607-612.
• Gates, J. E. and D. M. Gates (1980) “A winter food cache of Microtus pennsylvanicus.” American Midland Naturalist 103:407-408.
• Gurnell, J. C. (1984) “Home range, territoriality, caching behavior and food supply of the red squirrel in a subalpine forest.” Animal Behaviour 32:1119-1131.
• Heinrich, B. (1992) “Maple Sugaring by Red Squirrels.” Journal of Mammology 73(1):51-54.
• Jacobs, L. F. (1992) “Memory for cache locations in Merriam’s kangaroo rats.” Animal Behaviour 43:585-593.
• Jacobs, L. F. and E. R. Liman. (1991) “Grey squirrels remember the locations of buried nuts.” Animal Behaviour 41:103-110.
• Jenkins, S. H. and S. W. Breck (1998) “Differences in food hoarding among six species of heteromyid rodents.” Journal of Mammalogy 79:1221-1233.
• Lariviere, S. (1999) “Reasons why predators cannot be inferred from nest remains.” The Condor 101:718-721.
• Mattson, D. J. and D. P. Reinhart (1997) “vation of red squirrel middens by grizzly bears in the whitebark pine zone.” Journal of Applied Ecology 34:926-940.
• Miquelle, D. and Van Ballenberghe, V. (1989) “Impact of Bark Stripping by Moose on aspen-Spruce Communities.” Journal of Wildlife Management 53(3):577-586.
• Richens, V. B. (1996) “Notes on the digging activity of a northern pocket gopher.” Journal of Mammalogy 47:531-533.
• Steele, M., Hadj-Chikh, L., and Hazeltine, J. (1996) “Caching and Feeding Decisions by Sciurius carolinensis: Responses to Weevil Infested Acorns” Journal of Mammalogy 77(2) :305-314
• Thompson, D. C. and P. S. Thompson. (1980) “Food habits and caching behavior of urban grey squirrels.” Canadian Journal of Zoology 58 :701-710.
• Wade, D. A. and J.E. Browns (1985) “Physical evidence of carnivore depredation.” Slide show. order: Texas Agricultual Extension Service, Texas A&M U, College Station, TX:
• Warrick, G. D. (1989) “Barrel cactus consumption by desert bighorn sheep.” Southwestern Naturalist 34:483-486.
• Wilson, J. A. and B. Thomas (1999) “Diet and seed dispersal efficiency of the gray fox in chaparral.” Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science 98:119-126.

Gaits, Movement, and Track Patterns

• Barclay, O. (1953) “Some aspects of the mechanics of mammalian locomotion.” Journal of Experimental Biology 30 :116-120
• Bartholomew, G.A. and G.R. Cary (1954) “Locomotion in kangaroo rats and its adaptive significance” Journal of Mammalogy 32:155-169.
• Bartholomew, G.A. and H.H. Caswell, jr. (1951) “Locomotion in pocket mice.” Journal of Mammalogy 35(3):386-392.
• Bullock, R. “Functional Analysis of Locomotion in Pronghorn Antelope.” The Behavior of Ungulates Paper 12:274-305.
• Hildebrand, M. (1968) “Symmetrical Gaits of dogs in relation to body build.” Journal of Morphology 124(3):353-359.
• Hildebrand, M. (1980) “The Adaptive significance of tetrapod gait selection.” American Zoology 20:255-267.
• Hildebrand, M. (1989) “The Quadrupedal Gaits of Vertebrates” BioScience 39(11):766-775.
• Hildebrand, M. (1961) “Further syudies of the running cheetah and horse.” Journal of Mammalogy 42:84-91.
• Hildebrand, M. (1959) “Motions of the running cheetah and horse.” Journal of Mammalogy 40:481-495.
• Hildebrand, M. (1965) “Symmetrical Gaits of Horses.” Science 150(3697):701-708.
• Hildebrand, M. (1966) “Analysis of symmetrical gaits of tetrapods.” Folia Biotheoretica 6:9-22.
• Hildebrand, M. (1977) “Analysis of Asymmetrical Gaits.” Journal of Mammalogy 58(2):131-156.
• Hildebrand, M. (1967) “Symmetrical Gaits of primates.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 26:119-130.
• Hildebrand, M. and J.P. Hurley. (1985) “Energy of the oscillating legs of a fast-moving cheetah, pronghorn, jackrabbit, and elephant.” Journal of Morphology 184:23-31.
• Layne, J. N. and A. H. Benton. (1954) “Some speeds of small mammals.” Journal of Mammalogy 35:103-104.
• Magne de la Croix, P. (1936) “The Evolution of locomotion in mammals. ” Journal of Mammalogy 17 :51-54.
• Manter, J. T. (1938) “The dynamics of quadruped walking.” Journal of Experimental Biology 15:522-540.
• Reichman, O.J. (1979) “Animal locomotion in relationship to body weight and mountain slope. ” The 59th Annual meeting of American Society of Mammalogy. Corvalis, Oregon. 17-21 June 1979.
• Severinghouse, C.W. and J.E. Tanck. (1948) “Speed and gait of an otter.” Journal of Mammalogy 29:71.
• Snyder, R.C. (1952) “Quadrupedal and bipedal locomotion of lizards.” Copeia 2:64-70.
• Taylor, M. E. (1970) “Locomotion in some East African viverrids.” Journal of Mammalogy 51:42-51.
• Williams, T. M. (1983) “Locomotion in the North American mink, a semi-aquatic mammal. The effect of an elongate body on running energetics and gait patterns.” Journal of Experimental Biology 105:283-296.
• Williams, T. M., M. Ben-David, S. Noren, M. Rutishauser, K. McDonald and W. Heyward. (2002) “Running energetics of the North American river otter: Do short legs necessarily reduce efficiency on land?” Comparative Biochemistry & Physiology 133:203-212.

General tracking

• Bothma, J. and le Riche, E. (1993) “Disturbance bias when tracking Kalahari leopards.” Koedoe 36(2):109-112.
• Corn, J. and Raphael, M. (1992) “Habitat characteristics at marten subnivian access sites.” Journal of Wildlife Management 56(3):442-448
• Engeman, R. M., M. J. Pipas, K. S. Gruver and L. Allen (2000) “Monitoring coyote population changes with a passive activity index.” Wildlife Research 27(5):553 - 557.
• Foresman, K.R., Pearson, D.E. (1998) “Comparison of proposed survey procedures for detection of forest carnivores.” Journal of Wildlife Management 62(4):1217-1226.
• Gu, W., and R. K. Swihart. (2004) “Absent or undetected? Effects of non-detection of species occurrence on wildlife-habitat models. ” Biological Conservation 116:195-203.
• Hirth, D., Petty, J. and Kilpatrick C. (2002) “Black bear, Ursus americanus, Hair and apple trees, Malus pumila, in Northeast North America.” The Canadian Field-Naturalist 116:305-307.
• Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J., Seidensticker, J., David Smith, J. L., McDougal, C., Johnsingh, A.J., Chundawat, R. S., and V. Thapar (2003) “Science deficiency in conservation practice: the monitoring of tiger populations in India.” Animal Conservation 6:141-146.
• Laing, S. E., S. T. Buckland, R. W. Burn, D. Lambie, A. Amphlett (2003) “Dung and nest surveys: estimating decay rates.” Journal of Applied Ecology 40(6):1102-.
• Marshall, W. H. (1941) “Thomomys as burrowers in the snow.” Journal of Mammalogy 22:196-197.
• Marshall, W.H. (1935) “Mink displays sliding habits.” Journal of Mammalogy 16:228-229.
• Murie, A. (1936) “Following fox trails.” University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology Misc. Publication 32:
• Reid, V. H., R. M. Hansen and A. L. Ward. (1966) “Counting mounds and earth plugs to census mountain pocket gophers.” Journal of Wildlife Management 30:327-334.
• Ruiz-Olmo, J., D. Saavedra, and J. Jimenez. (2001) “Testing the surveys and visual and track censuses of Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra).” Journal of Zoology 253:359-369.
• Skalski, J. (1991) “Using Sign Counts to Quantify Animal Abundance.” Journal of Wildlife Management 55(4):705-715
• Stander, P. and Ghau,Tsisaba, Oma and Ui. (1997) “Tracking and the interpretation of spoor: a scientifically sound method in ecology.” Journal of Zoology, London 242:329-341
• Sterner, R.T., C. A. Ramey (2002) “An index technique to monitor broadcast calibration and bait pick up, plus rodent and avian sign under arid conditions.” Pest Management Science 58(4):385 - 391
• Vladimirova, E. and J. Mozgovoy (2003) “Sign field theory and tracking techniques used in studies of small carnivorous mammals.” Evolution and Cognition 9(1):1-17.
• Wilson, G., and Delahay, R. (2001) “A review of methods to estimate the abundance of terrestrial carnivores using field signs and observation.” Wildlife Research 28(2):151-164

Nests, cavities, beds, burrows and dens

• Allen, D.L. and W.W. Shapton (1942) “An ecological study of winter dens, with special reference to the eastern skunk.” Ecology 23:59-68.
• Ballard, W. B. and J. R. Dau (1983) “Characteristics of gray wolf den and rendevous sites in southcentral Alaska.” Canadian Field-Naturalist 97:299-302.
• Baumgartner, L. L. (1939) “Fox squirrel dens” Journal of Mammalogy 20:456-465.
• Berner, A., and L. W. Gysel. (1967) “Raccoon use of large tree cavities and ground burrows.” Journal of Wildlife Management 31 :706-714.
• Brown, J.H. and W. F. Dengler (1972) “Woodrats and cholla: dependence of a small mammal population on the density of cacti.” Ecology 53:310-314.
• Callahan, J. R., and D. Q. Estep. (1982) “Tree and ground nests of southern Eutamias.” Southwestern Naturalist 27:234-238.
• Cranford, J. A. (1982) “The effect of woodrat houses on population density of Peromyscus” Journal of Mammalogy 63 :663-666.
• Earhart, C. M. (1969) “The influence of soil texture on the structure, durability, and occupancy of muskrat burrows in farm ponds.” California Fish & Game 55(4):179-196.
• Farentinos, R. C. (1972) “Nests of the tassel-eared squirrel.” Journal of Mammalogy 53:900-903.
• Fitzwater, Jr., W. D., and W. J. Frank (1944) “Leaf nests of gray squirrels in Connecticut.” Journal of Mammalogy 25:160-170.
• Giles, L. W. (1942) “Utilization of rock exposures for dens and escape cover by raccoons.” American Midland Naturalist 27:171-176.
• Halloran, M. E. and M. Bekoff (1994) “Nesting behavior of Abert squirrels” Ethology 97:236-248.
• Johnson, M. (1975) “Tent Building in Mountain Beavers.” Journal of Mammology 56(3):715-716.
• Lindzey, F.G. (1976) “Characteristics of the natal den of the badger.” Northwest Science 50:178-180.
• McKinstry, M. C., R. R. Karhu and S. H. Anderson (1997) “Use of active beaver lodges by muskrats in Wyoming.” Canadian Field-Naturalist 111:310-311.
• Merriam, C. H. (1930) “A nest of the California gray squirrel.” Journal of Mammalogy 11:494.
• Merriam, H. G. (1971) “Woodchuck burrow distribution and related movement patterns.” Journal of Mammalogy 52:732-746.
• Messier, F. and J. A. Virgil (1992) “Differential use of bank burrows and lodges by muskrats in a northern marsh environment.” Canadian Journal of Zoology 70:1180-1184.
• Rodrick, P. J. and N. E. Mathews. (1999) “Characteristics of natal and non-natal kit fox dens in the Northern Chihuahuan desert.” Great Basin Naturalist 59:253-258.
• Smith, F. A. (1995) “Den characteristics and survivorship of woodrats in the eastern Mohave Desert.” Southwestern Naturalist 40:366-372.
• Smith, L. (1941) “An observation on the nest-building behavior of the opossum.” Journal of Mammalogy 22:201-202.
• Svendsen, G. E. (1976) “Structure and location of burrows of yellow-bellied marmot.” Southwestern Naturalist 20:487-494.
• Weller, D. M. and M.R. Pelton (1987) “Denning characteristics of striped skunks in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.” Journal of Mammalogy 68:177-179.

Scats, urine and marking behaviors

• Aleksuik, M. (1968) “Scent-mound communication, territoriality, and population regulation in beaver.” Journal of Mammalogy 49:759-762.
• Alexy, K. J., J. W. Gassett, D. A. Osborn and K. V. Miller (2001) “Remote monitoring of scraping behaviors of a wild population of white-tailed deer.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 29:873-878.
• Armitage, K. B. (1976) “Scent marking by yellow-bellied marmots.” Journal of Mammalogy 57:583-584.
• Asa, C. S., Peterson, E. K., Seal, U. S. and Mech, L. D. (1985) “Deposition of anal-sac secretions by captive wolves (Canis lupus)” Journal of Mammalogy 66(1):89-93
• Bailey, R. (1956) “Sex determination of adult wild turkeys by means of dropping configuration.” Journal of Wildlife Management 20(2):220
• Barnes, R.F. (2001) “How reliable are dung counts for estimating elephant numbers?” African Journal of Ecology 39:1- .
• Begg, C. M., K. S. Begg, J. T. Du Toit and M. G. L. Mills (2003) “Scent-marking behaviour of the honey badger, Mellivora capensis (Mustelidae), in the southern Kalahari.” Animal Behaviour 66(5):917-929.
• Bennett, L.J., P.F. English, R. McCain. (1940) “A study of deer populations by use of pellet group counts.” ournal of Wildlife Management 398-403.
• Bowyer, R. T., V. Van Ballenberghe and K. R. Rock (1994.) “Scent marking by Alaskan moose: characteristics and spatial distribution of rubbed trees.” Canadian Journal of Zoology 72:2186-2192.
• Brattstron, B. (1999) “Trail marking by coyotes.” Southwestern Naturalist 44:405-406.
• Danner, D. (1982) “Comparison of coyote and gray fox scat diameters.” Journal of Wildlife Management 46(1):240-1.
• Ferron, J. and Ouellet, J. (1989) “Behavioral context and possible function of scent marking by cheek rubbing in the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus).” Canadian Journal of Zoology 67:1650-53
• Flinders, E. T. and J. A. Crawford (1977) “Composition and Degradation of Jackrabbit and Cottontail Fecal Pellets, Texas High Plains.” Journal of Range Management 30:217-220.
• Freddy, D.J. and D.C. Bowden (1983) “Sampling mule deer pellet-group densities in juniper-pinyon woodland. ” Journal of Wildlife Management 47:476-485.
• Gamberg, M. and Atkinson, J. (1988) “Prey Hair and Bone recovery in Ermine Scats.” Journal of Wildlife Management 52(4):657-660
• Gese, E. M. (1997) “Scent-marking by coyotes: the influence of social and ecological factors.” Animal Behaviour 54:1155-1166.
• Gilbert, B. K. (1973) “Scent marking and territoriality in pronghorn in Yellowstone National Park.” Mammalia 37:25-33.
• Gosling, L.M. and S.C. Roberts (2001) “Testing ideas about the function of scent marks in territories from spatial patterns.” Animal Behaviour 62:F7-F10.
• Green, J. and Flinders, J. (1981) “Diameter and pH comparisons of coyote and red fox Scats.” Journal of Wildlife Management 45(3):765-767.
• Gregory, M. and Cameron, G. (1989) “Scent Communication and Its Association with Dominance Behavior in the Hispid Cotton Rat.” Journal of Mammalogy 70(1):10-17.
• Harrington, F. H. (1981) “Urine-marking and caching behavior in the wolf.” Behaviour 76:280-288.
• Howe, R. (1977) “Scent marking Behavior in Three Species of Woodrats (Neotoma) in Captivity.” Journal of Mammalogy 58(4):685-688.
• Johnson, C.N. and P.J. Jarman (1987) “Macropod Studies at Wallaby Creek .6. A Validation of the Use of Dung-Pellet Counts for Measuring Absolute Densities of Populations of Macropodids.” Australian Wildlife Research 14(2):139 - 145
• Joyal, R. and Ricard, J-G. (1986) “Winter Defecation Output and Bedding Frequency of Wild, Free-Ranging Moose.” Journal of Wildlife Management 50(4):734-736
• Koprowaki, J. L. (1993) “Sex and species biases in scent marking by fox squirrels and eastern gray squirrels.” Journal of Zoology 230:319-323.
• Kruuk, H., J. W. H. Conroy, U. Glimmerveen, and E. J. Ouwerkerk. (1986) “The use of spraints to survey populations of otters Lutra lutra. ” Biological Conservation 35:187-194.
• M. R. Hutchings, M. R., and P. C. White† (2000) “Mustelid scent-marking in managed ecosystems: implications for population management.” Mammal Review 30(3):157-
• MacCraken, J. and Van Bellenberghe, V. (1987) “Age- and Sex- Related Differences in Fecal pellet Dimensions of Moose.” Journal of Wildlife Management 51(2):360-364.
• Mech, D., Seal, U., and Delgivdice, G. (1987) “Use of Urine in Snow to Indicate Condition of Wolves.” Journal of Wildlife Management 51(1):10-13.
• Miller, K. V. and R. L. Marchinton (1999) “Temporal distribution of rubbing and scraping by a high-density white-tailed deer population in Georgia.” Canadian Field-Naturalist 113:519-521.
• Miller, K., Marchinton, R.L., Forand, K., and Johansen, K. (1987) “Dominance, Testosterone Levels, and Scraping Activity in a Captive Herd of White-Tailed Deer.” Journal of Mammology 28(4):812-817.
• Murray, D. L., J. D. Roth, E. Ellsworth, A. J. Wirsing, and T. D. Steury (2002) “Estimating low-density snowshoe hare populations using fecal pellet counts.” Canadian Journal of Zoology 80(4):771-781.
• Ouellett, J. P. and J. Ferron. (1988) “Scent-marking behavior by woodchucks.” Journal of Mammalogy 69:365-368.
• Ough, W. (1982) “Scent marking by Captive raccoons. ” Journal of Mammology 63(2):318-319.
• Peters, R. P. and L. D. Mech. (1975) “Scent-marking in wolves.” American Scientist 63 :628-637.
• Pittaway, R. J. (1984) “Fisher, Martes pennanti, Scent Marking Behavior.”” Canadian Field Naturalist 98 (1):57
• Prugh, L.R. and Ritland, C.E. (2005) “Molecular testing of observer identification of carnivore feces in the field.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 33(1):189–194.
• Randall, J.A. (1981) “Olfactory communication at sandbathing loci by sympatric species of kangaroo rat.” Journal of Mammalogy 62:12-19.
• Rothman, R. V. and L. D. Mech. (1979) “Scent-marking in lone wolves and newly formed pairs.” Animal Behaviour 27:750-760.
• Sanchez, D., Krausman, P., Livingston, T., and P. Gipson. (2004) “Persistence of carnivore scat in the Sonoran Desert.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 32(2):366-372.
• Sawyer, T. C., R. L. Marchinton and C. W. Berisford (1982) “Scraping behavior in female white-tailed deer.” Journal of Mammalogy 63 :696-697.
• Swihart, R. (1991) “Modifying scent-marking behavior to reduce woodchuck damage to fruit trees.” Ecological Applications 1(1):98-103.
• Taylor, G. J. (1968) “The use of marking points of grey squirrels.” Journal of Zoology 155:246-247.
• Vander Wall, S. B. and E. Peterson. (1996) “Associative learning and the use of cache markers by yellow pine chipmunks.” Southwestern Naturalist 41:88-90.
• Weaver, J. (1979) “Comparison of coyote and wolf scat diameters.” Journal of Wildlife Management 43(3):786-788.
• Weaver, J. (1993) “Refining the Equation for Interpreting Prey Occurrence in Gray Wolf Scats.” Journal of Wildlife Management 57(3):534-538.
• Wigley, T., and Johnson, M. (1981) “Disappearance Rates for Deer Pellets in the Southeast.” Journal of Wildlife Management 45(1):251-253.
• Zoller, P., Smith, W., and Brennan, L. (1996) “Characteristics and Adaptive Significance of Latrines of Swamp Rabbits.” Journal of Mammology 77(4):1049-1058.
• Zuercher, GL; Gipson, PS; Stewart, GC (2003) “Identification of carnivore feces by local peoples and molecular analyses.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 31 :961-70.

Scent Stations

• Conner, M., Labinsky, R. and Progulske, D. (1983) “Scent-station indices as measures of population abundance for bobcats, raccoons, gray foxes, and opossums” Wildlife Society Bulletin 11(2):146-152
• Diefenbach, D.R., Conroy, M.J., Warren, R.J., James, W.E., Baker, L.A., Hon, T. (1994 ) “A test of the scent-station survey technique for bobcats. ” Journal of Wildlife Management 58 :10-17.
• Dijak, W.D., Thompson, F.R. (2000) “Landscape and edge effects on the distribution of mammalian predators in Missouri.” Journal of Wildlife Management 64(1):209-216.
• Gehring, T.M., R. K. Swihart (2003) “Body size, niche breadth, and ecologically scaled responses to habitat fragmentation: mammalian predators in an agricultural landscape.” Biological Conservation 109:283-295.
• McDaniel, G.W., McKelvey, K.S., Squires, J.R., Ruggiero, L.F. (2000) “Efficacy of lures and hair snares to detect lynx.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(1):119-123.
• Robson, M. S., and S. R. Humphrey. (1985) “Inefficacy of scent-stations for monitoring river otter populations. ” Wildlife Society Bulletin 13:558-561.
• Sargeant, G. A., D. H. Johnson, and W. E. Berg. (1998) “Interpreting carnivore scent-station surveys. ” Journal ofWildlife Management 62(4):1235-1245.
• Smith,W. P., D. L. Borden, K. M. Endres. (1994) “Scent-Station Visits As an Index to Abundance of Raccoons: An Experimental Manipulation. ” Journal of Mammalogy 75(3):637-647.

Track Plates

• Carey, A. B. , J.W. Witt (1991) “Track Counts as Indices to Abundances of Arboreal Rodents.” Journal of Mammalogy 72(1):192-194.
• Connors, M., Schauber, E., Forbes, A., Jones, C., Goodwin, B., and R. Ostfeld (2005) “Use of track plates to quatify predation risk at small scales.” Journal of Mammalogy 86(5):991-996.
• Drennan, J. E., P. Beier, N. L. Dodd. (1998) “Use of Track Stations to Index Abundance of Sciurids.” Journal of Mammalogy 79(1):352-359.
• Hamm, K., Diller, L., Klug, R. (2003) “Spatial independence of fisher (Martes pennanti) detections at track plates in northwestern California” American Midland Naturalist 149(1):201-210
• Herzog, C. (2003) “The Use of Track Plates to Identify Free-ranging Fishers” Prescott, Arizona Master’s Thesis. Prescott College:
• Lord, R.D., Vilches, A.M., Maiztequi, J.I., and Soldini, C.A. (1970) “The Tracking Board: A Relative Census Technique for Studying Rodents” Journal of Mammalogy 51(4):828
• Loukmas, J. (2003) “Track plate eclosures: box designs affecting attractiveness to riparian mammals.” American Midland Naturalist 149(1):219-224.
• Mabee, T. (1998) “A weather-resistant tracking tube for small mammals.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 26(3):571-574
• Mooney, K. (2002) “Quantifying avian habitat use in forests using track-plates.” Journal of Field Ornithology 73(4):392-398.
• Taylor, C.A. and Raphael, M.G. (1988) “Identification of mammal tracks from sooted track stations in the Pacific Northwest” California Fish and Game 74(1):4–15.
• Zielinski, W. and Truex, R. (1995) “Distinguishing tracks of marten and fisher at track plate stations.” Journal of Wildlife Management 59:571-579

Tracks and Footprints

• Alexander, S.M., Waters, N.M. (2000) “The effects of highway transportation corridors on wildlife: a case study of Banff National Park.” Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies 8(1):307-320.
• Belant, J. (2003) “Comparison of 3 tracking mediums for detecting forest carnivores” Wildlife Society Bulletin 31(3) :744-747
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